Where it all comes from.

This site is not the original source of anything on it. Below: the fifty sources we weight most, ranked, and every one of the 693 pages the index cites, labelled by what kind of source it is.

The top 50

01
FDA - Drugs@FDA
Official US database of every FDA-approved drug, including approval letters, reviews and labels for approved peptides (semaglutide, tirzepatide, liraglutide, tesamorelin, bremelanotide, elamipretide, etc.).
Primary regulatory record of which peptides are proven safe and effective in humans.
Regulator
02
ClinicalTrials.gov (NIH/NLM)
US government registry of human clinical trials, with protocols and posted results for peptide trials (GLP-1 agonists, thymosin beta-4, ipamorelin, CJC-1295 and more).
Definitive source for which peptide human trials exist and what they found.
Database
03
European Medicines Agency (EMA) - Medicines
EU regulator's database of authorised medicines with assessment reports (EPARs) for approved peptide drugs.
Second major regulator; independent review of human efficacy and safety.
Regulator
04
PubMed / MEDLINE (NLM)
The main index of biomedical literature; the starting point for finding human peptide trials and reviews.
Comprehensive peer-reviewed index used by all evidence reviewers.
Database
05
Cochrane Library - 'Semaglutide for adults living with obesity' (Bracchiglione et al., 2025)
Cochrane systematic review pooling 18 randomized trials (~28,000 participants) of semaglutide for obesity.
Cochrane systematic reviews are the gold standard for synthesising human trial evidence.
Review paper
06
DailyMed (NLM) - FDA drug labels
Official current FDA prescribing information for marketed peptide drugs, including dosing, trial data and safety warnings.
Authoritative label-level human data for approved peptides.
Database
07
WHO International Clinical Trials Registry Platform (ICTRP)
WHO portal that searches trial registries worldwide, capturing peptide trials run outside the US (e.g., Europe, China, Russia).
Global complement to ClinicalTrials.gov.
Database
08
SELECT trial - Lincoff et al., NEJM 2023
Landmark trial showing semaglutide cut major cardiovascular events by ~20% in people with obesity but no diabetes.
Large outcomes RCT in a top journal; shows hard-outcome benefit from a peptide.
Review paper
09
STEP 1 trial - Wilding et al., NEJM 2021
Pivotal phase 3 trial of once-weekly semaglutide 2.4 mg for obesity (~15% mean weight loss).
Basis for Wegovy approval; landmark human peptide RCT.
Review paper
10
SURMOUNT-1 trial - Jastreboff et al., NEJM 2022
Pivotal phase 3 trial of tirzepatide (dual GIP/GLP-1 agonist) for obesity, with weight loss up to ~21%.
Basis for Zepbound approval; landmark RCT.
Review paper
11
LEADER trial - Marso et al., NEJM 2016
Cardiovascular outcomes trial showing liraglutide reduced major cardiovascular events and death in type 2 diabetes.
First GLP-1 peptide to show cardiovascular benefit in a large RCT.
Review paper
12
SUSTAIN-6 trial - Marso et al., NEJM 2016
Cardiovascular outcomes trial of semaglutide in type 2 diabetes showing fewer major cardiovascular events.
Large RCT in a top journal.
Review paper
13
STEP 2 trial - Davies et al., The Lancet 2021
Phase 3 RCT of semaglutide 2.4 mg in adults with obesity and type 2 diabetes.
Top-journal RCT extending peptide evidence to diabetic patients.
Review paper
14
Muttenthaler et al., 'Trends in peptide drug discovery', Nat Rev Drug Discov 2021
Widely cited review of approved peptide drugs, clinical pipelines and design strategies.
Top-tier review that maps what has reached human use.
Review paper
15
Wang et al., 'Therapeutic peptides: current applications and future directions', Signal Transduct Target Ther 2022
Comprehensive review of approved therapeutic peptides by disease area and their clinical development.
Highly cited, open-access overview of human peptide therapeutics.
Review paper
16
Drucker, 'Mechanisms of Action and Therapeutic Application of GLP-1', Cell Metab 2018
Authoritative review from a leading GLP-1 researcher on how GLP-1 drugs work and their clinical uses.
Written by a field-defining expert; heavily cited.
Review paper
17
FDA - Accelerated approval of Forzinity (elamipretide / SS-31), 2025
FDA announcement of the first treatment for Barth syndrome: the mitochondrial peptide elamipretide (SS-31), approved Sept 19, 2025.
Regulatory confirmation that a 'longevity-adjacent' peptide reached approval, with clear limits (accelerated approval).
Regulator
18
RECONNECT trials (bremelanotide/PT-141) - Kingsberg et al., Obstet Gynecol 2019
Two phase 3 RCTs showing bremelanotide improved desire and reduced distress in premenopausal women with HSDD.
Pivotal human data behind FDA-approved Vyleesi (PT-141).
Review paper
19
Tesamorelin trial - Falutz et al., NEJM 2007
RCT of the GHRH analog tesamorelin reducing visceral fat in HIV patients.
Key human evidence for a GH-releasing peptide (basis for Egrifta); relevant context for CJC-1295/ipamorelin claims.
Review paper
20
FDA - Bulk drug substances that may present significant safety risks (compounding)
FDA list explaining safety concerns and lack of human data for compounded peptides such as BPC-157, thymosin beta-4 fragments, ipamorelin, CJC-1295 and others.
Official regulatory assessment of popular unapproved peptides.
Regulator
21
FDA - Concerns with unapproved GLP-1 drugs used for weight loss
FDA safety page on compounded and counterfeit semaglutide/tirzepatide and reported adverse events.
Regulator guidance on real-world risks outside approved products.
Regulator
22
American Diabetes Association - Standards of Care in Diabetes 2026
Annual clinical guideline recommending how GLP-1 and GIP/GLP-1 peptides are used in diabetes and obesity care.
Leading professional-society guideline translating peptide trials into practice.
Society
23
Lau & Dunn, 'Therapeutic peptides: historical perspectives, current development trends, and future directions', Bioorg Med Chem 2018
Review of the history and pipeline of approved and clinical-stage peptide drugs.
Frequently cited overview of peptide approvals.
Review paper
24
Fosgerau & Hoffmann, 'Peptide therapeutics: current status and future directions', Drug Discov Today 2015
Industry-authored overview of the peptide drug market and clinical successes.
Classic, highly cited review.
Review paper
25
THPdb2 - Database of FDA-approved therapeutic peptides and proteins
Curated academic database (IIIT-Delhi) listing FDA-approved peptide and protein drugs with their properties.
Purpose-built peptide approval database, peer-reviewed.
Database
26
DrugBank
Large drug knowledgebase with pharmacology, half-life, targets and trial data for approved and investigational peptides.
Widely used, curated reference; partly commercial.
Database
27
Nature Reviews Drug Discovery (journal)
Top review journal that regularly covers peptide drug approvals and pipelines.
High-impact journal for the drug-development field.
Journal
28
Journal of Medicinal Chemistry (ACS)
Leading medicinal chemistry journal publishing peptide drug design and optimization work.
Top journal, though more design/preclinical than human outcomes.
Journal
29
Peptides (Elsevier journal)
Long-running peer-reviewed journal dedicated to peptide biology, pharmacology and physiology.
Core specialist journal; much content is preclinical.
Journal
30
Journal of Peptide Science (Wiley / European Peptide Society)
Official journal of the European Peptide Society covering peptide chemistry and therapeutics.
Specialist society journal; mostly chemistry/preclinical.
Journal
31
International Journal of Peptide Research and Therapeutics (Springer)
Peer-reviewed journal on peptide therapeutics, delivery and disease applications.
Specialist journal; mid-tier impact, mostly preclinical.
Journal
32
Lasker Foundation - 2024 Clinical Award: GLP-1-based therapy for obesity
Lasker Award honoring Habener, Mojsov and Knudsen for discovering GLP-1 and developing GLP-1 drugs.
Top biomedical prize documenting the most successful peptide therapy story.
Institution
33
WADA - Prohibited List
World Anti-Doping Agency list banning peptide hormones, GH secretagogues (CJC-1295, ipamorelin), TB-500 and unapproved substances such as BPC-157.
Official anti-doping regulator; shows which peptides are seen as performance-enhancing.
Regulator
34
USADA - 'BPC-157: Experimental Peptide Creates Risk for Athletes'
US Anti-Doping Agency explainer on BPC-157's prohibited status and lack of human approval.
National anti-doping authority; clear human-use risk statement.
Regulator
35
Operation Supplement Safety (OPSS, US Dept of Defense)
DoD resource that evaluates supplement and peptide products (e.g., SARMs, BPC-157) for service members.
Government consumer-safety source; not a primary research source.
Institution
36
Teichman et al., CJC-1295 in healthy adults, J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2006
Randomized placebo-controlled trials showing CJC-1295 raised GH 2 - 10x and IGF-1 1.5 - 3x for days in healthy adults.
Main published human data on CJC-1295; small, short-term.
Review paper
37
Liu et al., Thymosin alpha-1 for sepsis: systematic review of RCTs, BMC Infect Dis 2016
Meta-analysis of 19 RCTs suggesting thymosin alpha-1 may reduce sepsis mortality, with low-quality evidence.
Systematic review of human RCTs, but trials small and single-country.
Review paper
38
Beck et al., ipamorelin for postoperative ileus, Int J Colorectal Dis 2014
Phase 2 RCT in bowel-resection patients: ipamorelin was well tolerated but did not significantly speed recovery.
One of the few controlled human ipamorelin trials (a negative result).
Review paper
39
Thymosin beta-4 ophthalmic solution (RGN-259) for dry eye: Phase II RCT (2015)
Randomized placebo-controlled trial of thymosin beta-4 eye drops in 72 dry-eye patients; missed primary endpoints but improved some secondary measures.
Controlled human data on thymosin beta-4 (the parent of TB-500).
Review paper
40
'Emerging Use of BPC-157 in Orthopaedic Sports Medicine: A Systematic Review', HSS Journal 2025
Systematic review finding 35 preclinical studies and only 1 small human study of BPC-157; no clinical safety data.
Best current synthesis showing how thin the human BPC-157 evidence is.
Review paper
41
American Peptide Society
Professional society of peptide scientists; runs the American Peptide Symposium and publishes Peptide Science.
Main US scientific society for the field; research-focused rather than clinical.
Society
42
European Peptide Society
European professional society for peptide science; runs the European Peptide Symposium.
Leading European scientific body.
Society
43
Peptide Therapeutics Foundation
Non-profit that runs the annual Peptide Therapeutics Symposium covering peptide drugs in development and recent approvals.
Industry/academic forum focused on clinical-stage peptides.
Society
44
Lee et al., MOTS-c discovery paper, Cell Metab 2015
Discovery of the mitochondrial-derived peptide MOTS-c and its metabolic effects in mice.
Foundational top-journal paper, but animal data only; no human efficacy trials.
Review paper
45
Pickart & Margolina, GHK-Cu review, Int J Mol Sci 2018
Review of GHK-Cu's skin-repair and gene-expression effects, including small human cosmetic studies.
Most cited GHK-Cu review; mostly lab and cosmetic data, from the peptide's discoverer.
Review paper
46
Dinetz et al., Thymosin alpha-1 in human clinical trials review, Altern Ther Health Med 2024
Narrative review of 30+ thymosin alpha-1 trials (>11,000 subjects) arguing for its safety and efficacy.
Large summary of human data, but advocacy-oriented and in a lower-tier journal.
Review paper
47
Lee & Padgett, intra-articular BPC-157 for knee pain, Altern Ther Health Med 2021
Retrospective report of patients receiving BPC-157 knee injections, most reporting pain relief.
One of very few human BPC-157 reports; uncontrolled and low quality.
Review paper
48
'Overview of Epitalon - Highly Bioactive Pineal Tetrapeptide with Promising Properties' (2025, PMC)
Review of epitalon research, mostly from the Khavinson group in Russia, including small human studies.
Useful summary, but underlying human evidence is small and largely unreplicated.
Review paper
49
'Functional Connectomic Approach to Studying Selank and Semax Effects', Dokl Biol Sci 2020
Small human fMRI study comparing selank and semax effects on brain connectivity.
Rare indexed human data on selank/semax; no clinical outcomes measured.
Review paper
50
Examine.com - BPC-157
Independent evidence-summary site; its BPC-157 page notes strong rodent data but little human evidence.
Reputable secondary summary, not primary research.
Practitioner